Capitalism’s bold rise didn’t just pop up overnight, you know—its roots stretch back to ancient Mesopotamia around the 2nd millennium BCE, where merchants hustled goods, though it wasn’t quite the full-blown system we see today. However, this early trade was already dependent on inequality and exploitation.

Fast forward to the Roman Empire and Islamic nations; they built advanced commerce networks, trading silks and spices, laying groundwork for what came next. Oh, and those Italian city-states like Florence and Venice? They got clever with banking and bills of exchange, turning private ownership into a big deal.

Renaissance Europe’s competitive markets? Pure hustle, fostering innovation and risk-taking that screams, “Let’s make some money.” Meanwhile, Indo-Arabic numerals revolutionized bookkeeping, making financial tracking as straightforward as counting apples.

Mercantilism kicked things up a notch from 1500 to 1750, all about hoarding precious metals and boosting national power. Europe’s gold influx caused inflation, which, hey, lined capitalists’ pockets while leaving wage workers in the dust.

Early capitalists piggybacked on strong states’ laws, shifting from public duties to private gains through overseas trade and colonies. It was a savvy move, really, setting the stage for industrial takeovers.

Then came the agrarian shift in the 16th century, as feudal systems crumbled in England and France. This shift was partly fueled by the demographic crisis of the 14th century, which disrupted feudal arrangements through events like the Black Death. Land got concentrated, rents went market-driven, and serfs turned into wage laborers.

Suddenly, productivity wasn’t about tradition; it was about profit for landlords and survival for tenants. This economic rationality primed the pump for bigger things.